Science & Technology

Early ‘chemists’ had some strange ideas, but they had to start somewhere.

Today, chemistry is one of the core branches of physical science, the segment of natural science that doesn’t focus on living organisms. Like the other sciences, it relies upon tested observations and experiments, aims for unbiased analysis to get at the truth, and often overlaps with the others.

Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, properties, and behavior of matter – that’s anything that has mass and takes up space. In the ancient world, early chemists – often referred to as alchemists – had similar goals but different methods. From the modern perspective, they had some strange ideas. But like any other discipline mastered over time, it had to start somewhere.

Alchemy – The Ancient Roots

In the medieval age, alchemy was a mystical philosophical tradition and protoscience focused on purification and transmutation. Early alchemists had three core goals: chrysopoeia, which is the transformation of base metals such as lead into gold; panacea, or the creation of an elixir that could cure all diseases and extend life; and spiritual transformation, as many saw physical chemical work as a way of perfecting the human soul.

Early alchemists based their work on an idea by ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC. Like Aristotle, they believed all matter was composed of four elements (fire, air, water, and earth), and by manipulating those elements, one could change substances into others. This led to the belief that cheap base metals such as lead could be turned into gold to generate practically unlimited wealth. It also directed their ideas of medicine, which helps explain a lot of the early medical practices that seem outright ridiculous by modern standards.

While Aristotle’s ideas helped inspire alchemy, it didn’t really come about until centuries after his death. Zosimos of Panopolis, an Egyptian-Greek, is widely considered the first historical alchemist, and he lived sometime around AD 300, about 600 years after Aristotle. The writings of Zosimos detail early laboratory techniques and his lofty goal of transmuting metals.

Several hundred years later, in the early 9th century, Islamic alchemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān introduced classification of chemical substances and expanded his study to include minerals and medicinal elixirs. His advancements in what would eventually mature into the science we know today is why he is often called the “father of chemistry/alchemy.”

Chemistry – Away From the Mystical and Toward the Real

One thing that separates the ancient art of alchemy from the modern science of chemistry is the scientific method. This systematic evidence-based process is used to investigate observations, answer questions, and test hypotheses while ensuring accuracy in scientific conclusions by relying on reliable and repeatable outcomes.

The various procedures of ancient thinkers certainly form the roots of the scientific method, which some say stretch as far back as 1600 BC in ancient Egypt. The process was ever-changing, and what we call the scientific method today is a product of the 20th century. The formalization of the method, however, from the 10th century through the 17th, marks the transformation from alchemy into a true science.

English philosopher Francis Bacon formalized the method in Novum Organum in 1620, emphasizing inductive reasoning, and Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, and philosopher Galileo Galilei applied systematic observation to mathematical analysis around the same time.

This gradual progression from secretive mystical methods to a more empirical approach, which spanned centuries and cultures, brought about our understanding of chemistry today. Now we know matter is made up of atoms of the various elements – instead of fire, water, air, and earth – and we have more than 100 elements from hydrogen to oganesson.

Lead and gold are both elements, and so we know now we can’t change one into the other without altering their number of protons – and, in fact, we have done so! In 2025, scientists used the Large Hadron Collider to force protons out of lead, creating gold in its place. Of course, the trace amounts of gold and the massive amount of resources required to do this make it practically useless – but, still, the ancient goal of transmuting lead into gold has been accomplished.

Today, modern chemists are behind food production, advanced materials, everyday household products such as cleaners and paints, and lifesaving medicines that the ancient world would have considered magic. Now, they’re just so many things we take for granted as another part of modern life.

1. Chemistry is the study of matter – everything that has mass and takes up space.
2. Long before modern chemistry settled into a proper science, ancient alchemy tried to use mysticism and rudimentary science to cure disease and create wealth.
3. Scientists have managed to transmute lead into gold, but doing so costs far more than the tiny amount of gold is worth, making it pointless.